What did the Buddha really mean by “mindfulness?” B. Alan Wallace describes how misunderstanding the term can have implications for your practice.
~B. Alan Wallace
Buddhist scholar and teacher B. Alan Wallace is a prolific author and
translator of Buddhist texts. With a B.A. in both physics and the
philosophy of science from Amherst College and a Ph.D. in religious
studies from Stanford University, he devotes much of his time combining
his interests in the study of Buddhist philosophical and contemplative
traditions and their relationship to modern science.
Wallace is
founder and president of the Santa Barbara Institute for Consciousness
Studies, in Santa Barbara, California. Here he speaks in depth with
Tricycle about what he considers an essential but widely misunderstood
Buddhist practice: mindfulness meditation. Wallace argues that our poor
understanding of the practice has profound implications for our
meditation practice, and may very well draw us from the ultimate fruit
of Buddhist practice—liberation from suffering and its underlying
causes. The interview was conducted by email over the course of several
months in 2007.
For the past several months you’ve been in dialogue with many
Buddhist teachers on the topic of mindfulness. What prompted you to
focus on this topic?
For years I’ve been puzzled by the
discrepancies between the descriptions of mindfulness given by many
modern Vipassana teachers and psychologists who rely on them, on the one
hand, and the definitions of mindfulness we find in traditional
Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist literature on the other. When I first
noticed this disparity about thirty years ago, I thought perhaps it was
due to differences between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. But the more
I looked into this, the more it appeared to me that traditional
Theravada and Mahayana sources are largely in accord with each other,
and it was the modern accounts of mindfulness that departed from both
traditions.
In what ways do the modern accounts differ?
While mindfulness (sati)
is often equated with bare attention, my conversations with—and recent
studies of works by—the learned monks Bhikkhu Bodhi and Bhikkhu Analayo,
and Rupert Gethin, president of the Pali Text Society, led me to
conclude that bare attention corresponds much more closely to the Pali
term manasikara, which is commonly translated as “attention” or
“mental engagement.” This word refers to the initial split seconds of
the bare cognizing of an object, before one begins to recognize,
identify, and conceptualize, and in Buddhist accounts it is not regarded
as a wholesome mental factor. It is ethically neutral. The primary
meaning of sati, on the other hand, is recollection, non-forgetfulness.
This includes retrospective memory of things in the past, prospectively
remembering to do something in the future, and present-centered
recollection in the sense of maintaining unwavering attention to a
present reality. The opposite of mindfulness is forgetfulness, so
mindfulness applied to the breath, for instance, involves continuous,
unwavering attention to the respiration. Mindfulness may be used to sustain bare attention (manasikara), but nowhere do traditional Buddhist sources equate mindfulness with such attention.
Does the Buddha ever mention the term manasikara in his mindfulness instructions?
Not that I know of. The term figures most prominently in
Abhidhamma-based treatises on Buddhist psychology. In the Buddha’s
practical instructions on both samatha (tranquility meditation) and vipassana (insight meditation), the terms sati and sampajanna appear most often. Sampajanna
is usually translated from the Pali as “clear comprehension,” but this
type of awareness always has a reflexive quality: It invariably entails a
monitoring of the state of one’s body or mind, sometimes in relation to
one’s environment. For this reason, I prefer to translate sampajanna
as “introspection,” which here entails discerning observation not only
of one’s mind but of one’s physical and verbal activities as well.
What are some of the pitfalls of viewing meditation simply as a process of bare attention?
When mindfulness is equated with bare attention, it can easily lead to
the misconception that the cultivation of mindfulness has nothing to do
with ethics or with the cultivation of wholesome states of mind and the
attenuation of unwholesome states. Nothing could be further from the
truth. In the Pali Abhidhamma, where mindfulness is listed as a
wholesome mental factor, it is not depicted as bare attention, but as a
mental factor that clearly distinguishes wholesome from unwholesome
mental states and behavior. And it is used to support wholesome states
and counteract unwholesome states.
What, then, is the role of bare attention?
The cultivation of
bare attention is valuable in many ways, and there’s a rapidly growing
body of research on its benefits for both psychological and
physiological disorders. But it’s incorrect to equate that with
mindfulness, and an even greater error to think that’s all there is to vipassana. If that were the case, all the Buddha’s teachings on ethics, samadhi
(highly focused attention), and wisdom would be irrelevant. All too
often, people who assume that bare attention is all there is to
meditation reject the rest of Buddhism as clap-trap and mumbo-jumbo. The
essential teachings are dismissed rather than one’s own preconceptions.
A frequent claim is that bare awareness will automatically prevent
unwholesome thoughts from arising. Is there any basis for this notion
in the texts?
Bare awareness as calm, nonreactive awareness of one’s
meditative object plays a crucial role in samatha practice, which
alleviates such afflictive mental states as craving, aversion, dullness,
agitation, and doubt. There are also many accounts in Buddhist texts of
people gaining profound, liberating insights through what appears to be
bare attention. Perhaps the most well-known case is that of the
wandering ascetic Bahiya. After becoming a highly accomplished
contemplative, he recognized that he still hadn’t achieved liberation,
so he sought out the guidance of the Buddha, who told him, “In reference
to the seen, there will be only the seen. In reference to the heard,
only the heard. In reference to the sensed, only the sensed. In
reference to the cognized, only the cognized. That is how you should
train yourself.” And Bahiya immediately achieved liberation.
We could easily conclude from this that bare attention is all that is
needed in insight meditation. But we must remember that Bahiya’s case
was exceptional. He had already achieved a very high level of spiritual
maturation before he met the Buddha, so these quintessential
instructions were all he needed to completely purify his mind of all
mental afflictions. For the rest of us, the rich diversity of theories
and practices in Buddhism can be a great aid. Bare awareness can play an
important role in this, and on occasion it may indeed prevent
unwholesome thoughts from arising. But if we stick to bare attention
alone, it can also prevent wholesome thoughts from arising! For example,
meditations for the cultivation of the four sublime virtues of
lovingkindness, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity are all
practiced with mindfulness but not bare attention. Bare attention is not
a complete practice, and by itself it can be helpful and yet very
limiting.
Do the differing definitions of mindfulness have any practical bearing? Or is this just a semantic issue?
It’s far more than a semantic issue. In common usage the English term mindfulness simply means to be aware, or heedful. Sati
has a much richer connotation, so those wishing to practice Buddhist
meditation are well advised to gain as clear an understanding of this
and other related terms as they can, based on the most authoritative
sources they can find. Otherwise, Buddhist meditation quickly devolves
into a vague kind of “be here now” mentality, in which the extraordinary
depth and richness of Buddhist meditative traditions are lost.
Would it help to standardize the meaning of mindfulness?
Out
of respect for the integrity of each tradition, it would be a mistake to
force them all into the same mold. It’s important to be sensitive to
differences among different schools. But insofar as the discourses
attributed to the Buddha and the major commentaries agree on the meaning
of mindfulness, this should be recognized by Buddhists of all schools.
In his classic fifth-century work The Path of Purification,
Buddhaghosa, the most authoritative commentator in the Theravada
tradition, begins his explanation of this topic by stating that it is by
means of mindfulness that we are able to recall things or events in the
past, which echoes the Buddha’s definition of this term. Its
characteristic, Buddhaghosa writes, is “not floating,” in that the mind
is closely engaged with the chosen object of attention. Its property is
“not losing,” indicating that mindfulness enables us to maintain our
attention without forgetfulness. Its manifestation is “guarding” or
being “face to face with the object,” implying that “the rope of
mindfulness” holds the attention firmly to its chosen object, whether it
is a relatively stable, single object or a continuum of interrelated
events. Its basis is “strong noting,” suggesting its discerning quality,
which is crucial when closely practicing satipatthana (the Four
Applications of Mindfulness)—mindfulness of the body, feelings,
thoughts, and other phenomena. As Buddhaghosa comments that mindfulness
should be seen as a post set in its object, and as a gatekeeper guarding
the doors of perception. On the basis of this classic, authoritative
account, we can easily see why mindfulness is essential for samatha and vipassana in particular and for spiritual practice in general. Traditionally, samatha is the primary method for cultivating mindfulness, while in the practice of vipassana one applies mindfulness and wisdom (panna) to body, mind, feelings, and other phenomena.
In its psychological role as recollection, sati is an ordinary mental faculty we use in daily life. Some of the exercises in satipatthana, such as contemplating the anatomical parts of the body, can’t possibly be done with bare attention—for example, as satipatthana
is used in the practice of mentally scanning bodily sensations. In all
cases, mindfulness as it is cultivated in spiritual practice is applied
with discerning intelligence, often viewing phenomena within the
contexts of Buddhist categories such as the five aggregates. This is
evident in the Buddha’s primary discourse on satipatthana, which goes far beyond bare attention.
What’s the difference between mindfulness and right mindfulness? Is there such a thing as wrong mindfulness?
A sniper hiding in the grass, waiting to shoot his enemy, may be
quietly aware of whatever arises with each passing moment. But because
he is intent on killing, he is practicing wrong mindfulness. In fact,
what he’s practicing is bare attention without an ethical component.
Generally speaking, right mindfulness has to be integrated with sampajanna
- again, introspection involving clear comprehension—and it is only
when these two work together that right mindfulness can fulfill its
intended purpose. Specifically, in the practice of the Four Applications
of Mindfulness, right mindfulness has to occur in the context of the
full Noble Eightfold Path: For example, it must be guided by right view,
motivated by right intention, grounded in ethics, and be cultivated in
conjunction with right effort. Without right view or right intention,
one could be practicing bare attention without its ever developing into
right mindfulness. So bare attention doesn’t by any means capture the
complete significance of vipassana, but represents only the initial phase in the meditative development of right mindfulness.
There’s a tendency in some circles to favor vipassana practice over samatha practice. Can you say something about that?
The term samatha,
variously translated as “tranquility” or “meditative quiescence,”
refers to a wide range of practices for the purpose of achieving samadhi, or highly focused attention, or single-pointed concentration. Both mindfulness and introspection are integral to all samatha
practices, and the concentrated awareness one achieves through such
practice may be applied to any kind of object, small or large, simple or
complex, relatively stable or changing. samatha practice is
often overlooked or at best marginalized in many contemporary schools of
Buddhism, including Zen, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism. With its
emphasis on “sudden enlightenment,” the Zen tradition doesn’t teach samatha as a separate practice. Rather, it’s incorporated into the zazen practice of “just sitting” and into meditations on koans. This same trend has recently carried over into the modern vipassana tradition, which de-emphasizes samatha. But in traditional Theravada and Mahayana literature, samatha practices take a central role in the familiar triad of ethics, mental balance (the broader meaning of samadhi), and wisdom. Moreover, the array of Buddhist practices taught in the category of samadhi
covers much more than just developing single-pointed concentration.
These practices are aimed at cultivating exceptional states of mental
health and balance, and all insight meditations are optimally practiced
on that basis. Without mindfulness, mental balance cannot be developed.
And without the stability and vividness of attention achieved through samatha
practice, Buddhist wisdom practices are bound to be impaired by mental
agitation, dullness, and other hindrances. Ethics and mental balance
support each other, as do samatha and vipassana.
Mindfulness as a practice is normally associated with the Theravada tradition. What role does it play in Vajrayana practice?
Mindfulness, as the faculty of sustaining continuous attention on a
chosen object, is indispensable for all kinds of meditation. In the many
visualization exercises included in Vajrayana meditations, mindfulness
enables one to sustain such imagery with stability and clarity.
Vajrayana also includes Mahamudra and Dzogchen meditations, and here,
once again, stable, luminous, nonreactive attention is strongly
emphasized, as it is in Zen. But the basis for these wisdom practices is
still the cultivation of mental balance, including calm, vivid
attention.
In authentic Mahamudra practice, for instance, one first trains in
the fundamental teachings of the Four Noble Truths, including the
practices of ethics, mental balance, and wisdom. Then one ventures into
the Mahayana teachings, especially those on the Bodhisattva ideal, the
“Perfection of Wisdom” explanations of emptiness and dependent
origination, and the Buddha-nature. On that basis, one is initiated into
Vajrayana Buddhism, with its own unique practices for transmuting one’s
body, speech, and mind into the body, speech, and mind of a buddha.
Finally, one is trained in the specific view, meditation, and way of
life of the Mahamudra tradition. The meditation entails a kind of
radical “not-doing,” in which one rests in unstructured awareness,
releasing grasping onto all kinds of sensory appearances, memories, and
thoughts. As a result of such practice, all experiences gradually arise
as aids to one’s spiritual awakening, and finally all phenomena are
perceived as pure expressions of primordial consciousness, or
Buddha-nature.
The first phase of Dzogchen meditation, known as the “breakthrough,”
is very similar to Mahamudra, and at first glance they may seem
identical to the bare attention practiced in the modern vipassana
tradition and in Zen. But as we’ve noted in the discussion of right
mindfulness, the context of one’s practice is crucial, and methods that
appear the same on the surface may have deep, underlying differences.
Traditionally, Zen monks, for example, would commonly train in ethics
and study the great treatises of their tradition for years before they
would devote themselves single-pointedly to meditation. The same is
often true in the Theravada and Tibetan Buddhism. Each of these
traditions presents the practice of meditation within the context of its
own worldview, deeply informed by Buddhist insights.
What are some of the distinctive features in the Mahayana and
Vajrayana worldviews that would make their use of mindfulness different
from that of the Theravada tradition?
Right mindfulness emerges only
within the context of right view and right intention, and each of those
schools of Buddhism has its own distinct interpretation of these latter
two elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In Theravada Buddhism, right
view focuses on the three themes of impermanence, suffering, and
nonself. Right intention is a motivation for practice based on the
recognition of the nature and causes of suffering and the yearning to
gain irreversible liberation from all mental afflictions that lie at the
root of suffering. Some contemporary Vipassana teachers seldom
emphasize right view or right intention, and I think it’s doubtful that
the practice of mindfulness alone will result in any
“world-transcending” realizations. Again, if mindfulness as it is
commonly understood today were all that is needed to achieve liberation,
then all the rest of the Buddha’s teachings would be pointless.
In Mahayana Buddhism, right mindfulness is practiced together with
the view of emptiness, dependent origination, and Buddha-nature, and
with the intention to achieve perfect enlightenment for the sake of all
sentient beings. Without such a view and motivation, it is said that the
practice of mindfulness and all related forms of meditation will not
lead to Buddhahood. In the Vajrayana tradition, right view includes the
“pure vision” of perceiving all phenomena as expressions of primordial
consciousness, and right intention is the altruistic motivation to
achieve perfect enlightenment as swiftly as possible for the sake of all
beings. This is the same motivation as for Mahayana practice, but it
has a greater sense of urgency.
In each of those cases, mindfulness takes on a distinct flavor, just
as it does if it’s practiced with a materialistic worldview and a
mundane motivation—that is, simply to relieve stress and find greater
happiness in this lifetime alone. When bare attention is practiced
within the context of a modern, materialistic worldview, there’s no
basis for believing it will produce the same results as when it’s
practiced within the context of Theravada, Mahayana, or Vajrayana
Buddhism.
Over the past century, Buddhism has been undergoing a kind of
Protestant Reformation, with the decline of Buddhist monasticism and the
increased popularity of meditation among lay Buddhists. It is wonderful
that so many people nowadays are incorporating Buddhist meditation into
their daily lives. But it is important not to overlook the value of
devoting years to the study and practice of meditation as one’s sole
vocation. After all, we would not entrust our teeth to someone who had
simply taken a number of dentistry workshops and practiced for an hour
or so a day, so shouldn’t we be even more careful about entrusting our
minds to meditation instructors without years of professional training
in the theory and practice of meditation?
It all depends on our view and intention with regard to meditation.
If what we really want is a kind of meditative therapy to help us
relieve stress, work through personal psychological problems, and lead a
more balanced life, we don’t need highly trained meditation teachers.
But insofar as we set our goals higher—to liberation from the cycle of
existence and the realization of perfect enlightenment—then we need to
rely on those who have been professionally trained for years in the
theory and practice of meditation. Traditionally, monastics have played a
crucial role in this regard, and I hope they will continue to do so in
the future. But for that to happen, they need to be supported by the
Buddhist laity, as they have been in the past.
With part-time Buddhists in our Western communities, are we unlikely to produce enlightened teachers?
If we had only part-time scientists, then no branch of science would
have progressed to its current level of sophistication. Likewise, if we
had only part-time doctors and psychotherapists, we would be much worse
off with respect to our physical and mental healthcare. More broadly,
imagine the world with only part-time mechanics, electricians, farmers,
and teachers. If we left all the major professions in the hands of
amateurs, modern civilization would be immeasurably impoverished.
The path to spiritual awakening is the most challenging of all human
endeavors and entails the deepest transformation of a human being from a
deluded, miserable creature to an enlightened sage. If we wish to
produce enlightened teachers in modern society, then individuals who
wholeheartedly wish to devote themselves to this path—whether or not
they want to take monastic ordination—should be given all possible
support. This would be our greatest gift to future generations.
Source: Tricycle
